Distractions & Diversions
Techniques that exploit the cognitive vulnerability to lose focus on the core issue at hand, either by introducing irrelevant tangents or attacking unrelated points.
ad hominem - attacking the character or motive of the person making an argument, rather than addressing the argument itself.
adding qualifiers - adding an extra word or phrase to a response, which makes it ultimately meaningless, but still leaves the desired impression.
minimization - portraying something you don't want to address as trivial or insignificant, in order to shift the focus away from it and onto "more important" things.
muddying the waters - bringing up irrelevant facts to confuse or complicate an issue, which may otherwise be relatively simple and easy to understand.
non-sequitur - response that doesn't follow logically from or isn't related to anything previously asked or said.
poisoning the well - discrediting your opponent to an audience in advance, in order to encourage dismissing any future claims or accusations they may make against you.
projection - accusing an opponent of using the same underhanded tactics or committing the same misdeeds the accuser is guilty of.
red herring - throwing irrelevant information into an argument to divert attention from the real issue at hand.
whataboutism - discrediting a criticism by accusing hypocrisy, in order to shift the focus away from oneself and onto others.
Anxiety & Doubt
Techniques and fallacies that instill doubt, heighten anxiety, and cloud judgment, tapping into the vulnerability to act on heightened emotions or uncertainty rather than rational analysis.
appeal to ignorance - suggesting that something is true simply because it hasn’t yet been proven false, or vice versa.
appeal to pity - portraying oneself as a victim to not only elicit sympathy but to create a sense of shared vulnerability.
appeal to tradition - suggesting that moving away from or abandoning long-standing practice could have detrimental or even dangerous implications.
dog whistle - ambiguous messaging used to stoke racial fear and anxiety and/or to covertly signal allegiance to certain subgroups of an audience.
fear-mongering - spreading exaggerated rumors or dire warnings of impending danger to arouse fear and undermine rational thinking about an issue.
FUD - raising uncertainty and doubt about an issue, while providing no specifics or actual evidence to support it.
innuendo - implying something without actually saying it, which can't be refuted because it wasn't actually said.
scapegoating - placing unmerited blame on a person or group to channel societal resentment and frustration towards a common adversary or powerless victim.
slippery slope - suggesting that major inevitable consequences will occur by permitting any incremental course of action.
Oversimplification
Techniques and fallacies that exploit the human tendency to prefer simple solutions or “magical thinking” for complex issues, often omitting important details or nuances in the process.
false dichotomy - giving the impression that there are only two opposing choices or options, while ignoring any middle ground exists between the two extremes.
false equivalence - implying that two things are essentially the same, when they only have anecdotal similarities.
glittering generalities - vague, emotionally charged language used to evoke strong feelings or associations, while lacking in any specifics.
labeling - pigeon-holing a person or group into a simplistic, stereotypical category and assigning names and/or beliefs to that category.
proof by anecdote - making a broad generalization based on individual stories or isolated examples that support that generalization.
Transfer & Association
Techniques that manipulate perception by associating people, ideas, or values with positive or negative qualities and transferring those favorable or unfavorable associations onto the target.
common folk - connecting with an audience by showing that you understand and share their everyday experiences and concerns.
dysphemism - replacing neutral language with more derogatory or unpleasant terms, to instill a negative association.
euphemism - replacing language that is accurate but may be offensive to your target audience with language that is more palatable or appealing.
fault as virtue - presenting a weakness or undesirable trait as a strength, by focusing on any positive aspect of it.
guilt by association - using an opponent's links to another person or group to assign the other's beliefs, misdeeds, or other unattractive traits to the opponent.
honor by association - defending or championing cultural sacred cows in order to transfer the respect, authority, and prestige associated with those symbols onto oneself.
name calling - trying to diminish your opponent's argument by just calling your opponent names.
slogan - a brief, striking phrase that people will remember, typically designed to evoke emotional appeals and reinforce a specific message or idea.
virtue words - using words that are attractive to the value system of the target audience.
