Distractions & Diversions
Techniques that exploit the cognitive vulnerability to lose focus on the core issue at hand, either by introducing irrelevant tangents or attacking unrelated points.
ad hominem - attacking the character or motive of the person making an argument, rather than addressing the argument itself.
adding qualifiers - adding an extra word or phrase to a response that makes it ultimately meaningless, but still leaves the desired impression.
minimization - portraying something you don't want to address as trivial or insignificant, to divert attention from it and onto matters deemed more important.
muddying the waters - introducing irrelevant information or overly complex reasoning to confuse or complicate an issue that is otherwise straightforward and easy to understand.
non sequitur - a response that doesn't follow logically from or isn't related to anything previously asked or said.
poisoning the well - discrediting your opponent to an audience in advance to encourage dismissing any future claims or accusations they may make in the future.
projection - accusing an opponent of using the same underhanded tactics or committing the same misdeeds the accuser is guilty of.
red herring - throwing irrelevant information into an argument to divert attention from the real issue at hand.
whataboutism - discrediting a criticism by accusing hypocrisy to shift the focus away from oneself and onto others.
Anxiety & Doubt
Techniques and fallacies that instill doubt, heighten anxiety, and cloud judgment, tapping into the tendency to act on heightened emotions or uncertainty rather than rational analysis.
appeal to ignorance - suggesting that something is true simply because it hasn’t yet been proven false, or vice versa.
appeal to pity - portraying oneself as a victim to elicit sympathy, deflect criticism, and foster a sense of shared vulnerability with the audience.
appeal to tradition - suggesting that moving away from or abandoning a long-standing practice could have detrimental or even dangerous implications.
dog whistle - ambiguous messaging designed to stoke fears, anxieties, or prejudices against minorities or other marginalized groups, or to covertly signal allegiance to specific subgroups.
fear mongering - spreading exaggerated rumors or dire warnings about impending danger on an issue.
FUD - raising uncertainty and doubt about an issue while offering few specifics and no credible evidence to support the concerns.
innuendo - implying something negative or controversial without explicitly stating it, leaving the audience to infer the intended meaning.
scapegoating - assigning blame to a vulnerable target, often without justification.
slippery slope - suggesting that inevitable dire consequences will occur by permitting any small or incremental course of action.
Oversimplification
Techniques and fallacies that exploit the human tendency to prefer simple solutions or “magical thinking” for complex issues, often omitting important details or nuances in the process.
false dichotomy - giving the impression that only two opposing options exist while ignoring the possibility of any middle ground or nuanced alternatives.
false equivalence - implying that two things are essentially the same, despite being significantly different, by focusing on anecdotal or superficial similarities.
glittering generalities - vague, emotionally charged language that evokes strong feelings or associations, but offers few if any specifics.
labeling - casting a person or group into a rigid, stereotypical identity and assigning names or attributes to that identity.
proof by anecdote - making broad generalizations based on individual stories or isolated examples that support that generalization.
slogan - a brief, striking phrase designed to be memorable, evoke emotional appeal, and reinforce a specific message or idea.
Transfer & Association
Techniques that manipulate perception by associating people, ideas, or values with positive or negative qualities and transferring those favorable or unfavorable associations onto the target.
common folk - connecting with an audience by giving the impression that you understand and share their everyday struggles and concerns.
dysphemism - replacing language that is accurate and may be neutral with language that is more derogatory or unappealing to instill a negative association.
euphemism - replacing language that is accurate but may be offensive to the target audience with language that is more palatable or appealing.
fault as virtue - reframing a weakness or undesirable trait as a strength by highlighting any positive aspect of it.
guilt by association - discrediting an opponent by linking them with a person, group, or entity viewed negatively by the target audience.
honor by association - defending or championing cultural sacred cows to transfer the respect, authority, and prestige associated with those symbols onto oneself.
name-calling - using emotionally charged, derogatory terms to brand opponents with lasting negative associations that become synonymous with their identity.
virtue words - using emotionally appealing words that align with the target audience's value system to elicit approval or support.
