Framing
Techniques that shape how an issue is understood by defining its meaning, context, or underlying assumptions in advance, influencing interpretation before evidence or arguments can be evaluated.
adding qualifiers - inserting carefully chosen words or phrases into a statement that preemptively narrows or nullifies its meaning while preserving its surface impression.
dysphemism - replacing or augmenting otherwise accurate or neutral language with more derogatory or unappealing terms to instill a negative association.
euphemism - replacing language that is accurate but may be offensive to the target audience with language that is more palatable or appealing.
fault as virtue - portraying a weakness or undesirable trait as a strength by highlighting any positive aspect of it.
minimization - portraying something you don't want to address as trivial or insignificant, to divert attention from it and onto matters deemed more important.
poisoning the well - discrediting your opponent to an audience in advance to encourage dismissing any future claims or accusations they may make in the future.
presupposition - framing a claim in a way that assumes shared knowledge or agreement, such that the assumption passes as uncontested, giving the appearance of acceptance.
Oversimplification
Techniques that exploit the human tendency to prefer simple solutions or "magical thinking" for complex issues, often omitting important details or nuances in the process.
appeal to ignorance - reducing uncertainty to certainty by treating the absence of evidence as evidence itself.
false dichotomy - giving the impression that only two opposing options exist while ignoring the possibility of any middle ground or nuanced alternatives.
false equivalence - implying that two things are essentially the same, despite being significantly different, by focusing on anecdotal or superficial similarities.
glittering generalities - vague, emotionally charged language that evokes strong feelings or associations, but offers few if any specifics.
labeling - reducing a person or group to a rigid, stereotypical identity through the repeated assignment of certain descriptors or identity cues to that group or person.
proof by anecdote - making broad generalizations based on individual stories or isolated examples that support that generalization.
slogan - a brief, striking phrase designed to be memorable, evoke emotional appeal, and reinforce a specific message or idea.
Transfer & Association
Techniques that influence how humans judge people or ideas by associating them with positive or negative qualities and transferring those favorable or unfavorable impressions onto them.
bandwagon - portraying a claim or position as correct, inevitable, or morally right by implying it has widespread or overwhelming popular support.
common folk - connecting with an audience by giving the impression that you understand and share their everyday struggles and concerns.
guilt by association - discrediting an opponent by linking them with a person, group, or entity viewed negatively by the target audience.
honor by association - defending or championing cultural sacred cows to transfer the respect, authority, and prestige associated with those symbols onto oneself.
name-calling - using emotionally charged, derogatory terms to brand opponents with lasting negative associations that become synonymous with their identity.
virtue words - using emotionally appealing words that align with the target audience's value system to elicit approval or support.
Anxiety & Doubt
Techniques that instill doubt, heighten anxiety, and cloud judgment, tapping into the affective tendency to act on heightened emotions or uncertainty rather than logical deliberation.
appeal to pity - portraying oneself as a victim to elicit sympathy, deflect criticism, and foster a sense of shared vulnerability with the audience.
appeal to tradition - suggesting that moving away from or abandoning a long-standing practice could have detrimental or even dangerous implications.
dog whistle - ambiguous messaging designed to stoke fears, anxieties, or prejudices against minorities or other marginalized groups, or to covertly signal allegiance to specific subgroups.
fear mongering - inducing fear or anxiety about an issue by exaggerating threats or by raising uncertainty and doubt through vague, unsupported warnings.
innuendo - implying something negative or controversial without explicitly stating it, leaving the audience to infer the intended meaning.
slippery slope - suggesting that inevitable dire consequences will occur by permitting any small or incremental course of action.
Distractions & Diversions
Techniques that exploit the cognitive tendency to lose focus on the core issue at hand, either by introducing irrelevant tangents or attacking unrelated points.
ad hominem - attacking the character or motive of the person making an argument, rather than addressing the argument itself.
muddying the waters - introducing irrelevant information or overly complex reasoning to confuse or complicate an issue that is otherwise straightforward and easy to understand.
non sequitur - a response that doesn't follow logically from or isn't related to anything previously asked or said.
red herring - throwing irrelevant information into an argument to divert attention from the real issue at hand.
scapegoating - diverting attention from the real causes of an issue by assigning blame to a vulnerable or convenient target.
whataboutism - discrediting a criticism by accusing hypocrisy to shift the focus away from oneself and onto others.
